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TIME: Almanac 1990
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1990 Time Magazine Compact Almanac, The (1991)(Time).iso
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112789
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11278900.022
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1990-09-19
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SCIENCE, Page 57Great Bubbles in the CosmosA celestial map reveals clues to the Big Bang and invisiblematterBy Michael D. Lemonick
For all their skill at finding and analyzing such bizarre
objects as black holes, neutron stars and quasars, astronomers have
so far failed to solve one of the most basic mysteries of the
cosmos: What does the universe look like? The heavens appear just
as two dimensional through powerful modern telescopes as they did
to the eyes of the ancient Greeks, and until recently, no one could
say for sure whether the myriad galaxies were organized in some
meaningful way. Astrophysicists are fiercely competing to discover
how the universe evolved into its present structure, but they
cannot test their theories until they know what that structure is.
Now astronomy's ignorance is rapidly being dispelled, thanks
in large part to two researchers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center
for Astrophysics (CfA). Since 1985, Margaret Geller and John Huchra
have been meticulously crafting a three-dimensional map that charts
the positions of thousands of galaxies. Last week, in the journal
Science, they presented their latest map of one small chunk of the
visible universe, and the findings are startling.
Far from being a uniformly distributed collection of galaxies,
as the textbooks have long assumed, the cosmos seems to be
organized into immense bubbles, each of them about 150 million
light-years across. The walls of the bubbles are galaxies, and the
interiors appear to be virtually empty. Most surprising of all is
a feature Geller and Huchra call the "Great Wall" -- a sheet of
galaxies at least 200 million light-years wide, 500 million long
and perhaps 15 million thick. It looks like a single structure, but
the scientists say it may instead be made up of the walls of
adjacent bubbles. Says Geller: "Because it runs off the edge of our
survey, we don't know how big it really is."
The CfA study is not the first to see dark voids and large
conglomerations of galaxies, but it is by far the most
comprehensive. The reason no one had done such a search earlier,
says Huchra, is that galaxy mapping is extremely time consuming.
Their survey of 4,000 galaxies took about 1,000 hours of telescope
time.
Huchra, who made the telescopic observations for the
Harvard-Smithsonian team, used an instrument called a spectrograph
to break down each galaxy's light into its constituent colors.
Within the spectrum he could see lines representing various
elements in and around the galaxy's stars. These lines appear to
be shifted toward the red end of the spectrum, depending on how
fast the galaxy is moving and thus how far away from earth it is.
By carefully measuring the degree of red shift, Huchra and Geller
calculated the relative positions of the galaxies.
The results are posing something of a problem for theorists.
Says Jeremiah Ostriker, chairman of Princeton's astrophysics
department: "There is no theory using conventional physics that can
explain these structures without causing other inconsistencies."
Ostriker has coauthored a quite unconventional scenario involving
hypothetical objects called cosmic strings. These strings, he
believes, could generate explosive bursts of energy that would in
turn create the bubbles.
But another idea, called the cold dark matter theory, has
gathered more support. This theory postulates an as yet
undiscovered form of exotic subatomic particle that pervades the
universe. The presence of this mysterious "dark matter" could
explain why most galaxies -- including our Milky Way -- seem,
judging from measurements of gravitational forces, to contain about
ten times as much invisible matter as they do visible stars, gas
and dust. The existence of dark matter is needed to fill the gaps
in some of the Grand Unified Theories that physicists have
concocted to account for the fundamental structure of matter and
energy.
In particular, some scientists speculate that cold dark matter
caused galaxies to form into the kind of bubbles Geller and Huchra
have found. The process supposedly got under way 10 billion to 20
billion years ago, when the universe began with the Big Bang and
the energy from that explosion started to condense into matter.
Since then, ordinary visible matter, by itself, has probably not
had time to gather into enormous structures. But cold dark matter
may have condensed first, and its gravitational force could have
helped pull visible matter into bubbles and galaxies. In fact,
recent computer simulations at Princeton of a universe dominated
by cold dark matter look remarkably like the real one.
But that theory received a jolt from another astronomical
discovery announced this week. Scientists from Caltech, Princeton
and the Institute for Advanced Study have detected the most distant
quasar (an exceptionally bright starlike object) ever spotted. It
is billions of light-years away, and the researchers estimate that
it existed when the universe was only 7% of its present age. It is
hard to explain how a quasar could be formed that early, even under
the influence of cold dark matter.
Another major mystery is the fact that the faint glow of
microwaves left over from the Big Bang is almost completely
uniform. The presence of large bubbles in the universe suggests
that this microwave radiation should be much more uneven. More
clues may come from the new Cosmic Background Explorer satellite,
which is designed to measure radiation intensities as it orbits the
earth in the coming year.
In the meantime, the CfA study will go on, and other mapping
efforts are in the works. "Big as it is," Geller explains, "our
survey area compared with the visible universe is like Rhode Island
compared with the surface of the earth." The bubbles and walls
could be isolated phenomena. But, notes Geller: "Every survey ever
done has contained structures as big as the survey could contain."
If that trend continues, then there are larger objects yet to be
found, which will give theorists even worse headaches. "These
surveys test in the most acute way our conceptions of how structure
developed in the universe," says Ostriker, "and for that reason
they are possibly the most important studies in extragalactic
astrophysics now. This is an exciting time to be in this field."